The Birth of the ‘Puerto-Crucian’

John F. McKeon 

Across the millennia St. Croix and Puerto Rico have served as twin beacons to e a c h o t h e r a n d h a v e engaged in a reciprocal transfer of human beings across the short, watery distance that separates the two. This intermingling of people and culture spans beyond years and further than centuries. The perpetual morphing of the Caribbean people has been driven by the relentless force of waves and the sweeping power of currents and has profoundly shaped the destiny and altered the human story of both. The sea’s influence extends far beyond geology, creating a fluid highway that has propelled a human tide of migration. 

From the initial voyages of early tribal cultures guided by sea currents, human existence has remained the central narrative of the culture and resilience of its inhabitants. This displacement of populations is how the islands came to be inhabited thousands of years ago (1) The ebb and flow of the seafarers has consistently deposited new lives and new cultures into the cauldron known as Crucian Culture. Driven by the basic needs of survival; food, water, and security, the early indigenous people embarked on an exodus from their homes and reached outward. The story of this migration is one of adaptation, exploration, and the continuous trek for a better life. 

Migratory Periods: 

This initial movement began about 10,000 years ago and ended in the early sixteenth century, soon after the arrival of the Europeans. The shift of Amerindians through the continental mainlands and eventually to St. Croix was followed by the European arrival (or invasion) of colonizers who brought enslaved Africans with them during the sixteenth century. This movement lasted until manumission in 1848, although there were still post emancipation European movements to the Antilles. 

This was followed by the inter-island migration of contract labor. Beginning in the 1850s post emancipation migrants journeyed from all over the world, continuing until 1917, when the United States purchased the Virgin Islands from Denmark. 

The second and third migration patterns were dictated by the policies of imperialism and colonialism and the plantation system. This intra-regional migration peaked after the second world war with the development of the tourism industries.

It was never a single event but a long and intricate narrative imposed by shifting colonial powers, economic pressures, devastating natural disasters, and the deep-seated hope for a better life. From Spanish colonial ties to the collapse of the sugar industry, Puerto Ricans—especially those from the nearby island of Vieques—surged to St. Croix, weaving their culture into the fabric of the island. 

In the Beginning: 

The indigenous connection stretches from prehistoric times, to the end of the 15th century. Back then the islands were inhabited by peoples of the Arawak and Taino groups. At that time the Tainos had few natural enemies and were able to create a flourishing culture based on agriculture as well as establishing the use of canoes to trade with other groups within their proximity. 

After the arrival of Columbus in 1493, Spanish settlers began to arrive from Spain, Andalusia, and at the same time West African captives were brought in even greater numbers. Western European diseases and conquests decimated the indigenous population. The need for labor exponentially grew, as did slavery. 

 The Blending Begins 

The intermixing in Puerto Rico over several centuries produced a ‘physical and ethnic melange of Iberians , Africans and Indians and developed a unique cultural blend, for the most part all were speaking their native language and identifying themselves ultimately as ‘Hispanic’. (2) described noted historian Arnold Highfield. Yet, how did the Puerto Rican culture and ethnicity evolve in St. Croix? What effects did the mixing of the two cultures have on the islands today? We need to return to the past to understand the present. 

*Present Day Ethic Mix of the US Virgin Islands 

The Eighteenth Century’ 

From the onset of colonization, the Danish West Indies and Puerto Rico were more intertwined than other islands in the Antilles chain. After the Danes took over St Croix, the slave-based sugar revolution hastened intra-regional migration, and forced the enslaved into escaping to Puerto Rico from St Croix. The African enslaved determined the relative ease in making the sea journey to Vieques.(3) Upon arrival they were eligible to be granted freedom by the Spanish by merely swearing loyalty to the King of Spain. This was promptly followed by conversion to the Catholic faith. 

An increasing number of non-whites, runaways, refugees, and economic migrants were also hard pressed by the harsh social and working conditions. Initially fugitive slaves first fled into the bush, eventually most forests were razed to expand sugar cultivation, and the escapees fled to nearby islands. 

This scale of these slave escapes became such an issue for the two islands and plantation owners that both negotiated the Treaty of 1767 (4). Though generally the interaction of the two islands was fairly peaceful due to the economic relationship of the trading of slaves between the Danish and the Spanish. Aside from the sale of captured Indians, pre-1700 population transfers were generally to the West Indies. With Spanish colonialism more focused on the mainland colonies, European rivals of the Spanish were free to move about relatively unrestricted. By contrast, resettlement activity after 1700 impacted the Spanish Caribbean demographically and economically. Puerto Rico's population rose from an estimated 6,000 in 1700 to 155,42 by the end of the century. (5)

At the time Puerto Rico lacked sufficient technology, capital and labor to sustain larger scale commercial agriculture. Foreign immigrants and investment helped maintain the flat-lining sugar industry. Yet, shipping, commerce and the influx of skilled craftsmen allowed Puerto Rico to remain at least a functioning colonial economy. 

The Twentieth Century 

The purchase of the Virgin Islands by the US coupled by the previous annexation of Puerto Rico at the close of the Spanish American War altered the relationship between the two islands. The primary driver for the Puerto Rican diaspora to St. Croix has been the promise of work, especially in the sugar, construction, and tourism industries, as well as a broader desire to escape poverty and establish a better future for themselves. The 1920s spike in emigration of Puerto Ricans, (particularly from Vieques) to St. Croix was a result of economic hardship and high unemployment. Yet, In reality it was just a continuation of the historical connection between the islands. St Croix also experienced economic depression during this time. 

Paradoxically while the economy for a few of the largest remaining sugar farmers was profitable, many others faced closure and poverty. Sugar production was still an economic force, but it left most people landless on both islands and seeking to migrate. There were multiple reasons for the migration that ensued. Many from smaller islands like Vieques, sought work because of persistent unemployment and long term poverty in their communities. However, conditions had changed by the 1920s. Travel between islands became easier and affordable. By the early to mid-20th century, a strong network of shipping routes now existed throughout the Caribbean, making migration to nearby St. Croix more feasible. Yet there was also a host of other compelling reasons to be considered.

As always there was the long standing historical connection between Puerto Rico and St. Croix. Vieques, in particular, had long connections which made St.Croix a logical and familiar destination for Puerto Rican migrants.

Even more important was shared US citizenship. As US citizens and unincorporated territories, both Puerto Rico and the USVI share a unique relationship where travel and movement between them do not require passports, fostering a sense of connection and facilitating migration. A combination of all these factors made possible the mass migration from Puerto Rico, of which 70% originated in Vieques and Culebra. 

Operation Bootstrap: 

Based on 1930s New Deal economic relief reforms and infrastructure provided by the programs such as the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration, Operation Bootstrap intended to move Puerto Rico away from its agrarian system and into an industrial economy At first during the 1950s and early 1960s, Operation Bootstrap was a success, transforming Puerto Rico's agrarian economy into a modern, industrial one.It attracted American companies through tax incentives and low-cost labor and led to increased living standards, produced higher income, and longer life expectancies. 

However, success eventually waned due to growing unemployment, increased competition, and a lack of sustained investment in the institutions that supported it, ultimately leaving the promise of total industrialization a hollow one. Operation Bootstrap also led to a reliance on imports for food. Today, Puerto Rico imports close to 90% of the food people eat. This has increased food prices and creates supply chain disruptions in times of crisis.What was the outcome? The industrialization displaced many agricultural workers, as factory jobs and the slow growth in tourism could not absorb the millions of unemployed. The effect on migration? In order to relieve the resulting population pressure, the Puerto Rican government actively helped the migration of displaced workers to the mainland. This was supposedly a critical safety valve for the program's failures. 

The Vieques Effect: 

In 1941 the US Navy expropriated land in Vieques, taking away 72% of the territory of the island for the construction of a firing range as part of an amphibious expeditionary forces exercise base. As a result, the ‘Viequenses’ were coerced into finding a place for their families to settle and begin a new life. Many decided to join family who had previously moved to St. Croix. The total population of Puerto Rico declined by 50% in the century prior to 1945.(6) How were these new arrivals received? Did they adapt to the new culture? 

It was a difficult undertaking involving social integration and a blending of Puerto Rican and Virgin Islander cultures, leading to the formation of new ethnic identities. Both groups shared cultural elements which are fairly similar. Both celebrate music, dance, and culinary traditions during their festivals, often featuring musical genres like salsa, reggae and calypso,.These festivals serve as a means of cultural expression and community bonding, reflecting the shared history and heritage of all Caribbean cultures In the 1960s (as well as presently) St. Croix faced declining population. Crucians were forced to leave for various reasons like economic depression, The Viet Nam War (7), and the initiation of important industry programs in the United States. 

There were two critical stages of migration of the Spanish speaking new arrivals. 

The first wave of emigrant children attended public and private schools and received their education in English because there was no official language policy by the US government in place to handle the situation on St. Croix. The initial response to the non English speaking children was negligible (most of these children attended school in the countryside and absences were constant) (8) It took decades for the Territory to address the language barriers. 

It was decades more before the Spanish speaking population on St. Croix began to see change in official governmental policy towards education (9). The Puerto Rican community demanded the linguistic needs of their children be addressed. 

During the period from 1960 to 1980, the federal government began to implement specialized bilingual programs. A tardy yet much needed response to the huge migratory wave from Vieques that resulted from the land expropriation by the US Navy. 

Kinship Patterns and Experiences: 

The end of the Second World War witnessed hundreds of thousands of Puerto Ricans moving to the continental US. However, St. Croix also received a sizable wave of migration from Puerto Rico as similar economic pressures and opportunities drew them to nearby St. Croix. 

Finding themselves in disadvantaged economic position, Puerto Ricans utilized family and friend networks (Kinship (10)) to expand their presence in the USVI. Kinship systems provided the newly arrived migrants with a working framework for social identity within their community. Catholicism played a major influence on Puerto Rican migrants to St. Croix by providing a familiar religious and cultural institution. The Church stimulated community cohesion along with a sense of shared identity in the new environment of St. Croix. Going back to the early colonial period, St. Croix was under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of San Juan in Puerto Rico. Holy Cross Catholic Church in Christiansted offered a vital gathering point for religious practice and social support for the migrating population. This created networks of social ties that promoted unity, cooperation, and mutual support. Kinship was the primary reason that the Puerto Crusian culture was able to overcome initial obstacles. 

The long history of Puerto Rican settlement has deeply enriched the cultural fabric of the Virgin Islands, illustrated by the influences on music, cuisine, and other cultural expressions. This mutual exchange has created a distinct island identity that is a blend of both Crucian and Puerto Rican traditions. Puerto Rican migrants have consistently contributed to the Virgin Islands' economy, filling labor needs in various sectors, but have also created complex dynamics around labor supply and wages. 

While there has been significant integration, full assimilation has been hindered by various factors. These include colonialist dynamics, racial discrimination, and the unique political status of both territories. The ease of movement and close proximity between the islands encouraged a lack of full assimilation, as migrants maintain strong ties to their homeland and may eventually return. Both Puerto Ricans and Crucians exist in a unique political space as US citizens without full representation in Congress or a vote in presidential elections while residing in their territories. This shared political reality should be a unifying factor, but it also means migrants and native-born islanders face the exact systemic obstacles to self-determination. 

In conclusion, the integration of Puerto Rican migrants into Crucian culture is not a simple story of assimilation, but a nuanced narrative of inter-connectedness. As the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico continue to confront economic and environmental shifts, the relationship between these two island territories will remain an evolving and vital aspect of their shared Caribbean reality. 

Historian John F. McKeon lives on St. Croix USVI and in Southampton NY. He holds degrees from Trinity College Dublin, (MPhil with Distinction). and St. Joseph's University New York (Summa Cum Laude) B.A. East Asian History with a Philosophy Capstone Minor in Labor, Class and Ethics. John also has certificate from the Oxford University Epigeum Research Integrity Center. He is a current member of the Society of Virgin Island Historians. 

Foot Notes

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1. An example would be In the Orinoco Delta, The Orinoco Delta is one of the eight natural regions of Venezuela comprising all the mouths of the Orinoco.,where indigenous cultural groups like the Arawak carried out extensive maritime and river expeditions for millennia. Their exceptional boat-building and navigation skills allowed them to navigate the intricate waterways of the delta and travel along the northern coast of South America as well as neighboring islands, establishing long-standing trade and kinship networks. 

   
   

2. The Cultural History of the American Virgin Islands and the Danish West Indies: A Companion Guide Paperback –. Arnold Highfield, (2018). Antilles Press.  
   

3. Roopnarine ,Lomarsh “United States Virgin Island Migration: Social and Economic Studies 57, no. 3/4 (2008): 131–56. An in-depth description of the means and methods of the escaped enslaved can be found in this informative manuscript.  
   

4. These large scale escapes forced labor issue that was a two-sided problem for the Spanish as well as Danish colonies, in the early 1700s the Danes also offered escapees from Puerto Rico their freedom if they swore loyalty to the Danish King.The aim of the Treaty of 1767 intended to reduce and resolve the issue of fugitive slaves in both directions. The treaty stipulated that escapees would be returned to their so called ‘masters’ hoping to close any access to freedom on either island  
   

5. Race, Colonial Exploitation and West Indian Immigration in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico, 1800-1850 Jorge L. Chinea The Americas , Apr., 1996, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Apr., 1996), pp. 495-519 Published by: Cambridge University Press  
   

6. Williams, Eric (January 1, 1945). "Race Relations in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands". Foreign Affairs. Vol. 23, no. 2. ISSN 0015-7120  
   

7. The US. Department of Defense reports that an estimated 48,000 Puerto Ricans served in the conflict, with 345 killed in action. Puerto Ricans have a history of service in the US military, participating in every major conflict since World War I. After becoming US. citizens in 1927, Virgin Islanders have proudly served in the military and fought in all wars since World War II. In the Vietnam War; an estimated 350 served, and about two dozen gave their lives.  
   

8. The ‘students’ were primarily involved in agricultural work, they had no shoes or clothes and their walks to schools were extremely long. Yet, the employees of the public system did not consider the education of these students to be particularly their responsibility. The mastering of the English language compromised the education of these children. 
   

9. The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 made it financially possible for these children to receive an education of quality. The environment of the schools and in parts of the community of St. Croix proved to be a difficult obstacle. This was a case in which only legal action on the part of the mainland government, despite local group cultural politics, was able to provide adequate education for these children.  
   

10. Kinship is the social relationship that links people through marriage, birth, or adoption, establishing roles, rights, and obligations within a community. There are three main types: consanguineal kinship (through blood, like parents and siblings), affinal kinship (through marriage, like spouses), and fictive kinship (through shared beliefs or community, like fellow church members)