Abraham Lincoln, Denmark and the Island of St. Croix
- Mark Dworkin
- Jul 8
- 10 min read
Updated: Jul 9
John F. McKeon
Abraham Lincoln, who is lauded for his role in ending slavery, at one time advocated the colonization of African Americans to St. Croix as a solution to racial tensions in the United States. Admittedly Lincoln’s views evolved, and eventually shifted away from colonization, particularly after the Emancipation Proclamation. Yet in the early years of the Civil War Lincoln considered other options as well.
Some Background:
The Constitution of the newly formed American nation, reflects the founders’(1) struggle to protect the disparate interests of the thirteen colonies. While espousing the blessings of liberty, protecting the institution of slavery was a non-negotiable tenet. The economy of the southern colonies was largely dependent on the labor provided by an enslaved population. Preserving the institution of slavery not only ensured a continued source of reproducing labor but also preserved a class structure that secured the dominance of free, white, male property owners. Workingmen throughout the country, whether miner, farmer or teamster, had no wish to compete for their livelihood with the emancipated slaves of the wealthy. Historically, however, anti-slavery did not denote the absence of racism and thus, ironically, as the nation grew, the populations in the western territories advocating for abolition were not necessarily for of integration.(2)The question then became: How could the country manage the emancipation of the enslaved population without economic disruption. This is where the Caribbean but primarily St. Croix in the West Indies come into play.
1. Fox Gustavus Vasa Fox, “June 24, 5. [Col. Wm Raasloff].” In Gustavus Vasa Fox Collection 1823-1919 (bulk 1860–1889) Letters sent. New York Historical Society, 1865. Fox was first the Assistant Secretary of the US Navy during the Civil War. ‘objects you desire’ is how Fox referred to the emancipated enslaved in his reply to the Danish minister’s request regarding the status of shipments of labor to St Croix. Other times simply
as ‘cargo’.
2. For in depth data the author recommends ‘Continental Reckoning: The American West in the Age of Expansion 2 (History of the American West)’ by Elliott West
The Haitian Revolution gave birth to the new republic of Haiti, the first Black and independent nation in the Caribbean when, in 1791, the enslaved population of the French colony of Saint Domingue seized control from France. It was also the only case in the western hemisphere in which an enslaved population successfully liberated themselves from a colonial power. This raised concern and fear globally, particularly in the United States.
Peter von Scholten (1784-1754) General Governor in the Danish West Indies
In 1847, Denmark, colonizer of the Danish West Indies which included the island of St. Croix, made plans to abolish slavery within a 12-year period. Decidedly closer to the potential battleground, the governor of the Danish West Indies, Peter Von Scholten, was concerned that the enslaved would not wait 12 years for emancipation. A widespread yet relatively peaceful uprising on St. Croix arose, in response,Von Scholten emancipated the enslaved persons on the island. Interestingly, Von Scholten’s declaration was not formalized until later by the government in Copenhagen.(3) Now we finally get to Abraham Lincoln and The Virgin Island of St. Croix.
Abraham Lincoln was a member of the American Colonization Society (ACS).(4) He joined the 4 organization in 1856, and his support for colonization, including his public statements and early presidential actions, are not be widely known. Lincoln, lauded for his role in ending slavery, at one time advocated the colonization of African Americans to St. Croix as a solution to racial tensions in the United States. Admittedly Lincoln’s views evolved, and eventually shifted away from colonization, particularly after the Emancipation Proclamation. Yet in the early years of the Civil War Lincoln considered other options as well.
3. Von Scholten was called back to Denmark .A hard trial was brought against him, and he was at first denied his pension, although he was later cleared of the charges and acquitted shortly before his death. Von Scholten was the last governor general of the West Indies because of the beginning democratisation of the Danish state and colonial administration.
4 FThe American Colonization Society (ACS), established in 1816, aimed to relocate free African Americans to Africa. While initially supported by prominent figures like Henry Clay and Francis Scott Key, the ACS faced growing opposition from abolitionists who viewed it as a means of preserving slavery rather than ending it
He believed the two ‘races’ could not coexist peacefully or equally, and thus supported the voluntary emigration of the formerly enslaved not only to St. Croix but to other locations, as well. Emigration to Africa and even Central America were also under consideration. How did this idea develop in the first place? We need to go back to the beginning In Lincoln’s Annual Message to Congress in December of 1861, the president confirmed his public endorsements of colonization made in the 1850s by again recommending colonization as an option for freed slaves.(5) Lincoln's early belief in colonization w as based on the theoretical premise of the “incompatibility of the races”, a view prevalent at the time. Lincoln envisioned a a world in which freed slaves could establish self-governance. As far back as 1858, in his eulogy for Henry Clay, Lincoln referenced the idea of freeing the nation from slavery while also "restoring a captive people to their long-lost father-land”.(6) Attempts were made to establish 6 colonies in Liberia and Central America. In retrospect, it was not exactly a “return to a fatherland” for freed slaves but more of a voluntary deportation.
In the early stages of his presidency, Lincoln took steps toward colonization plans, such as investigating the feasibility of a colony in Panama as well as Haiti. He even proposed a Constitutional Amendment that would have allowed Congress to appropriate money and make other provisions for colonizing formerly enslaved people, with their consent, outside the US. Lincoln's views on colonization and race evolved over time, particularly as he witnessed the contributions of Black soldiers in the Union Army during the Civil War. Apparently Abe eventually surmised that if a man would fight and die for his country, it was his homeland!
5. Abraham Lincoln, First Annual Message to Congress Dec 3, 1861 The American Presidency Project
https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/202175… ..’that such persons, on such acceptance by the General Government, be at once deemed free, and that in any event steps be taken for colonizing both classes (or the one first mentioned if the other shall not be brought into existence) at some place or places in a climate congenial to them. It might be well to consider, too, whether the free colored people already in the United States could not, so far as individuals may desire, be included in such colonization’ -1
6. Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 2 [Sept. 3, 1848-Aug. 21, 1858]. Lincoln stated: ’If as the friends of colonization hope, the present and coming generations of our countrymen shall by any means, succeed in freeing our land from the dangerous presence of slavery; and, at the same time, in restoring a captive people to their long-lost father-land, with bright prospects for the future; and this too, so gradually, that neither races nor individuals shall have suffered by the change, it will indeed be a glorious consummation.’
Photos:
Rudolph von Raasløff and Willian H. Seward
In 1857, Valdemar Rudolph von Raasløff(7) was appointed Denmark's Minister Resident in Washington, DC. as the representative of King Christian IX of Denmark. Willian H. Sewardwas appointed 8 Secretary of State by Abraham Lincoln in 1861. Seward’s history of interest in the Virgin Islands led to attempts to purchase the Danish Virgin Islands by the US. He negotiated a treaty to acquire St. Thomas and St. John, although the treaty was rejected by the US Senate.
Lincoln’s pursuit of colonization, through his proxy Seward,(8) was not independent from Denmark’s seeking the same policy. If we only consider American historiography, African American colonization during the Civil War was led and directed entirely from Washington. In reality, the Danish minister Raasløff proposed the colonization plan to Seward, not the other way round. He then worked with the US. in efforts to implement the plan.
All this information can be found in a paper published in 2014. Working from unknown sources in Danish archives ‘The Danish St Croix Project: Revisiting the Lincoln Colonization Program with Foreign-language Sources’ illustrates not only the Danish desire but the need for the colonization policy.(9) The authors also reveal that Denmark lacked the infra-structure needed to absorb the influx of imported labor into St. Croix.
In one instance; newly arrived laborers (provided by Britain) from India arrived only to discover they had to buy their own food despite their contract saying otherwise, The workers discovered housing facilities “totally inadequate,” with up to six workers living in one room, and experienced deteriorating health conditions.(10)
7. Valdemar Rudolph von Raasløff (1815 – 1883) was a Danish politician, military officer and diplomat
8. William Henry Seward was appointed Secretary of State by Abraham Lincoln on March 5, 1861, and served until March 4, 1869. Seward carefully managed international affairs during the Civil War. He also attempted to Seward also negotiated the 1867 purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867. Additionally he explored the possibility of acquiring Greenland from Denmark, though these efforts were also unsuccessful
9. The Danish St Croix Project: Revisiting the Lincoln Colonization Program with Foreign-language Sources’ Michael J. Douma & Anders Bo Rasmussen Depart ment of History, James Madison Universit y, Harrisonburg, VA, USA Department of American Studies, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark Published online: 21 Nov 2014.
10. Ibid: The Danish St Croix Project: Revisiting the Lincoln Colonization Program ‘In the summer of 1863, some 321 British Indian immigrants disembarked only to discover work conditions worse than promised. The newly arrived laborers discovered that they had to buy food despite their contract saying otherwise, and when a British inspector came to survey the conditions, he found housing facilities “totally inadequate,” with up to six workers living in one room, and deteriorating health conditions. Within 18 months of their arrival, 22 Indian workers were dead, and both British and Indian authorities warned against sending more workers to St Croix before conditions had improved. As a testament to the conditions on the island, only four of the original 321 Indian workers remained on the Danish Virgin Islands by 1873.’As soon as their contracts were up in 1868, more than two-thirds immediately returned to India.
Lincoln’s vocal support of colonization encouraged Raaslöff, to write his government about the possibility of acquiring a new source of cheap labor. In 1847, Denmark had abolished the slave trade and supported seizure of vessels involved with it, based upon past negotiations with the previous Buchanan(11) administration, regarding Africans taken on seized slavers(12)– Raaslöff met with Seward personally and asked him whether it would be possible to restart negotiations and also organize the transfer to St Croix of free African Americans. His sales pitch consisted of the premise that the numbers of freed people of color was climbing and soon ‘burden’ the US. Government. As the St Croix plan developed in the spring of 1862. Raaslöff, and Vilhelm Birch(13) (the governor of St Croix) all supported the voluntary a ppropriation of African American colonists. As well as the involuntary placement in St. Croix of captive Africans taken upon seized slave ships! Apparently the Danish Government and their partners (the St. Croix planters) were in desperate need of cheap labor, whatever the source.
The negotiations eventually fell apart and failed for reasons that had little to do with Lincoln or his opinion on the matter. Danish opposition grew from economic and political concerns and with the assassination of Lincoln, negotiations were abandoned
To remedy the labor shortage on the island, Denmark brought workers to St Croix from other Islands like Barbados, Anguilla, and St. Eustatius. Eventually a tax and subsidy policy was created in St Croix to spark labor recruitment. The planters hired agents who advertised contracts abroad. Islands across the Caribbean competed for scarce labor, and were unable to keep their own laborers from emigrating. As a result Denmark progressively passed laws regarding treatment of imported labor and eventually the island acquired workers from East India and Asia. In reality, the importation of free labor to St. Croix following the abolition of slavery was largely a continuation of exploitative practices in a new form. While aimed at maintaining the plantation economy, these systems significantly limited the opportunities and advancement of freed people The violent eruption in 1878 of the ‘Fireburn’(14) conflict preceded the eventual collapse of the plantation system itself.
Within 50 years, Denmark, facing economic difficulties in managing the colony and recognizing its strategic importance to the United States, especially with the construction of the Panama Canal, sold the Danish West Indies to the US. for $25 million in 1917. Despite the economic shift, the island still bears the marks of its plantation past. Many areas are still defined by the names of the original plantations, and ruins of sugar mills and plantation buildings dominate the landscape.
11. Buchanan acted against the international slave trade, his actions were influenced by a desire to ease tensions with Britain and pursue political goals like annexing Cuba. Buchanan's personal opposition to slavery was complicated by his belief that the Constitution supported it and his advocacy for states' rights on the issue. As President, Buchanan infamously intervened to assure the Supreme Court's majority ruling in the
pro-slavery decision in the Dred Scott case.
12. The capture of the Wildfire in 1860, carrying over 500 Africans in poor conditions, is a well-known example. The Africans were taken to Key West before being repatriated to Liberia.
13. St. Croix governor Vilhelm Birch encouraged the American consul on the island, Robert Finlay, to inquire if the American government, instead of sending “savages” to West Africa, could send 500 to 1,000 of the so-called ‘recaptives’ to St. Croix, where they would be set to labor for five- year terms. Denmark’s King Frederik VII signed a document dispatching chamberlain Louis Rothe to conduct negotiations with the American government Rothe soon proposed transferring up to 2,000 Africans to the Danish West Indies as it would afford planters on St. Croix cheap labor, and provide “the African race” civilizational uplift through “the advantages” the island of St. Croix offered.
14. The "Fireburn" was a labor revolt that took place on the island of St. Croix in 1878. It was a significant event in the history of the Danish West Indies, marked by widespread fires and rioting following the denial of workers' demands for better wages and working conditions. The revolt was led by several women, including Mary Thomas, Axeline Elizabeth Salomon, and Mathilda McBean, who became known as the "Three Queens"
Historian John F. McKeon lives on St. Croix USVI and in Southampton NY. He holds degrees from Trinity College Dublin, (MPhil with Distinction). and St. Joseph's University New York (Summa Cum Laude) B.A. East Asian History with a Philosophy Capstone Minor in Labor, Class and Ethics. John also has certificate from the Oxford University Epigeum Research Integrity Center. He is a current member of the Society of Virgin Island Historians.
Recommended Readings:
‘The Danish St Croix Project: Revisiting the Lincoln Colonization Program with Foreign language Sources’ Michael J. Douma & Anders Bo Rasmussen Department of History, James Madison Universit y, Harrisonburg, VA, USA Department of American Studies, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark Published online: 21 Nov 2014.
Kona Shen, “The History of Haiti, 1492-1805,” Brown University Department of Africana Studies, October 27, 2015, https://library.brown.edu/haitihistory/.
Continental Reckoning: The American West in the Age of Expansion (History of the American West) Hardcover – February 1, 2023 by Elliott West (Author)
Brenton, Felix (December 30, 2008). "American Colonization Society (1816-1964)". blackpast.org. Retrieved July 18, 2025.