Greenland: Where Everything Old is New Again

Jan 29
13 min read

John F. McKeon

**Image: Danish Customs House in the Christiansted National Historic Site on St. Croix**

The idea of acquiring Greenland is not new. It's been around since the 19th-century and has since been defined by nearly 160 years of US strategic interests, formal defense cooperations, and reoccurring American attempts to acquire the Greenland itself. Some background on Greenland is required.

Greenland operates as a self-governing parliamentary democracy. The local government (Naalakkersuisut) manages domestic affairs, while Denmark oversees foreign policy, defense, and currency. Approximately 56,600 people live on Greenland the majority of whom are indigenous Inuit. The official language is Greenlandic (Kalaallisut) and their currency is the Danish Krone (DKK).

Over 80% of the island is covered by the Greenland Ice Sheet, the second-largest ice body in the world. Fishing (especially shrimp and halibut) remains the backbone of the economy, accounting for about 85% of exports. In 1985, using its new Home Rule status, Greenland withdrew from the EU to protect fishing and seal trade.

The island possesses vast reserves of gold, rare-earth minerals, uranium, and potential offshore oil and gas. Tourism is an emerging sector focused on the Northeast Greenland National Park, icebergs, and the Northern Lights. There are few roads connecting towns; most travel between settlements is conducted via sea or air. This is a comparative history of Greenland regarding the United States and Denmark . It will explore the complex geopolitical triangle characterized by early colonization, World War II politics, and Cold War strategy. It will also factor in the Inuit peoples experience.

In 2026, the US government posited a "Greenland Crisis" (no..not the obvious climate one, the one that is responsible for most of the geopolitical conditions in the Arctic).That one seems to be conveniently ignored by the US when territory or natural resources come into play. This crisis is sparked by competing definitions of sovereignty. Internal political shifts positioned Greenland to gain home rule and self-Government from Copenhagen in 2009, granting it authority over domestic affairs while Denmark retained control of foreign and defense policy.

As of 2026, 85% of Greenlanders oppose a US takeover, and the Greenlandic government has reaffirmed its preference for the Danish Realm over American control. Both Denmark as well as the US have an imperialistically checkered past to consider when considering repercussions of their policies on the Kalaallit people throughout history. Its surprising they would trust either nation for proper stewardship.

The Spiral Case

Resentment of Denmark runs deep, drawing on dark revelations from colonial days, concerning obligatory birth control for Inuit women and even forced adoption of their children to couples in Denmark. The "Spiral case" refers to a state-run forced contraception campaign in Greenland between 1966 and 1991, during which Danish doctors implanted intrauterine devices (IUDs)—known as "spirals"—often without their knowledge or consent. Approximately half of Greenland's fertile female population was affected, some girls were as young as 12 years old when the devices were inserted during school medical ‘examinations.’ The Danish government launched the program to control the birth rate in Greenland to reduce social and childcare expenditures. The campaign halved Greenland's birth rate within a few years but left many women with chronic pain, infections, and permanent infertility.

The US Army built a top secret, nuclear-powered base on the ice pack. The base, ‘Camp Century’, was abandoned and sank. One day it could be in danger of being exposed by melting ice. If the Greenland Ice Sheet melts, the abandoned US Cold War base Camp Century is expected to expose hazardous waste—including PCBs, diesel fuel, and low-level radioactive coolant —into the environment. While originally thought to be entombed forever, climate change could cause the ice to turn from accumulation of melt by 2090, threatening to release these pollutants into the ecosystem.

Another US foul up was on in 1968, when a US Air Force B-52G Stratofortress carrying four B28FI thermonuclear bombs crashed on the sea ice near Thule Air Base (now Pituffik Space Base) in Greenland. Known as a "Broken Arrow" incident, the crash caused widespread radioactive contamination but luckily did not result in a nuclear explosion. Upon impact, the bombs’ conventional high explosives detonated, shattering the weapons and dispersing radioactive plutonium, uranium, and tritium over a 3-mile radius. The US and Denmark launched a massive recovery effort under extreme Arctic conditions (temperatures as low as 75°F). It is assumed that none of these transgressions are forgotten to native Greenlanders

The Danes and The Inuit

The origins of the Inuit people of Greenland are rooted in a series of ancient migrations from Siberia to the North American Arctic between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. However, these earlier waves left no recognized genetic descendants among today’s population. Modern Greenlandic Inuit are the direct descendants of the Thule culture, a technologically advanced "Neo-Eskimo" group that emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. Migrating eastward across Arctic Canada, the Thule reached Greenland’s northwestern shores by the 13th century, bringing revolutionary survival tools—including dog sleds, kayaks, and sophisticated whaling equipment—that allowed them to permanently thrive in the island’s extreme environment.

Timeline of Denmark & Greenland Relations

Late in the 10th century the Norsemen came to Greenland under the leadership of Erik the Red.(1). Erik the Red, after establishing the first, prosperous Norse settlements in Greenland around 985 AD after being exiled from Iceland.(2) He explored the island and named it Greenland, founding the Eastern and Western settlements. Eric died of an epidemic in the winter of 1003 AD. The Norse colonies founded by Erik existed before vanishing around the 15th century.

Modern Danish-Greenlandic relations began with the arrival of missionary Hans Egede, who was sent to search for the lost Vikings, but instead found the indigenous Inuit inhabitants. Egede established a colony in an attempt to convert the indigenous Inuit to Christianity in 1721, marking the start of the modern colonial era. He established a colony near what is now the capital, Nuuk. In 1775 Greenland was officially proclaimed as a colony of Denmark/Norway which monopolized trade and restricted foreign access to the island. In 1814 the union between Denmark and Norway dissolved.

The 434-year political union between Denmark and Norway (1380–1814) was dissolved in 1814 following Denmark's defeat in the Napoleonic Wars. Under the Treaty of Kiel, King Frederick VI was forced to cede Norway to Sweden. Norway briefly declared independence before being forced into a personal union with Sweden that lasted until 1905.

Denmark and Sweden separated primarily because of centuries-long political, economic, and military conflicts that made the ‘Kalmar Union’ (1397–1523) of the two nations unsustainable. Swedish resistance to Danish dominance, culminating in the 1520 Stockholm Bloodbath,(3) triggered a final, successful revolt, leading to Sweden's independence and subsequent, frequent wars for regional supremacy. As part of the Treaty of Kiel, Denmark retained control of Greenland (along with the Faroe Islands and Iceland), and cemented it as a Danish colony.

US Colonial Beginnings 1823

The prospect of the US buying Greenland, by choice or by force, gives historians a sense of déjà vu. The 19th-century was a period of territorial acquisitions for the exponentially expanding US: Louisiana (from France) in 1803, then Florida (from Spain) in 1819, Alaska (from the Russian Empire) in 1867 and the Philippines (from Spain) in 1898. America had spent much of the 19th century establishing its continental borders as well as acquiring land by transaction and threat, asserting itself as the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere.

Two major ideas served as the propulsion of consolidating its seemingly fluid borders, the first was proposal of Manifest Destiny and the even more expansive introduction of the Monroe Doctrine. Manifest Destiny was the 19th-century belief that the United States was divinely ordained to expand across the North American continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific. This ideology justified territorial acquisition (like Texas, California, Oregon), the displacement and forced removal of Native Americans, and fueled conflicts like the Mexican-American War. It was a blend of nationalism, American exceptionalism, and imperialism resulting in much of the US growth while causing immense suffering for indigenous populations.

In 1823 President James Monroe articulates what becomes known as the Monroe Doctrine. European colonial interests in Central and South America, as well as Russian settlements in what would become Alaska, led the US to establish an American foreign policy position that European powers should stay out of the Western Hemisphere, leaving it under the United States’ sphere of influence. This is the jump off point for us to consider all attempts for the desired US acquisition of Greenland. The following table illustrates the long history of those attempts.

Timeline of US Attempts to Acquire Greenland

Greenland has been an area of interest during six separate US administrations Presidents Lincoln, Wilson, FDR, Truman, Eisenhower and now Trump all have desired more control. Initially it was Abraham Lincoln’s administration that laid the groundwork for the initial American interest in acquiring Greenland, a pursuit that has resurfaced periodically throughout history and has returned again in 2026.

William H. Seward, Lincoln's Secretary of State, first proposed the purchase of Greenland and Iceland in 1867, the same year he negotiated the acquisition of Alaska. Seward's interest was driven by a desire to outflank British North America (Canada) and secure strategic naval positions in the North Atlantic. He commissioned a formal report on Greenland’s natural and strategic value to justify the potential purchase. Although the proposal was developed during Lincoln's presidency, it faced heavy opposition in 1951 President Harry Truman While not a purchase, the 1951 Greenland Defense Agreement allowed the U.S. to build major bases (including Thule Air Base) while affirming Danish sovereignty. 1955 Pentagon/ Joint Chiefs The Joint Chiefs of Staff urged President Eisenhower to try buying Greenland again, but no formal offer was made. 2017-19 President Donald Trump Revived the idea, publicly discussing the purchase of Greenland as a "large real estate deal" and canceling a trip to Denmark when the offer was rejected. 2024-26 President Donald Trump Trump attempts to acquire Greenland, citing national security, and refused to rule out the use of force annexation Congress under his successor, Andrew Johnson, and was never realized at the time.

The report that Seward had commissioned was a study on the feasibility of purchasing Greenland and Iceland, considering them strategic "outposts" for the defense of North America. Negotiations were reportedly nearly complete for $5.5 million in 1868. but failed to gain US Congressional support as a result of near sighted view of Sewards Alaska deal dubbed ‘Seward’s Folly’(4) this was ridiculed by many as foolish at the time… no formal offer was made. to the Danes

The next US attempt to establish itself in Greenland was in the years 1891-92. American Arctic explorer Robert Peary planted a US flag at the northern tip of Greenland and proclaimed that he had discovered “Peary Land,” a portion of land separated from the Danish colony by a ‘channel of water’(5). The US always hoped that explorers would find some geographical excuse to lay claim to a portion of Greenland. While the United States never made a specific claim based on Peary’s maps, the “discovery” offered some uncertainty to Denmark’s sovereignty over all of Greenland until 1916.

The Lansing Declaration

As the US exercised considerable geopolitical strength in its effort to broaden its spheres of influence, the Danish territories of Greenland and the Danish West Indies became targets of acquisition for the American President Woodrow Wilson purchased the Danish West Indies (now the US.Virgin Islands) from Denmark for $25 million in 1917 to prevent Germany from seizing the territory during World War I and to protect Caribbean trade routes. Wilson also aimed to secure the Panama Canal and prevent all German influence in the Western Hemisphere. The treaty was signed in January 1917, and the formal transfer took place on March 31, 1917.

The US threatened to seize the Danish West Indies and the ‘purchase’ was finalized with $25 million in gold coins. After several decades of interest and subtle challenges to Denmark’s rule over the island, the purchase officially recognized that Denmark held the sole claim over all of Greenland.

The US formerly recognized Danish control. It was during negotiations that Denmark got the US Secretary of State Robert Lansing to include a declaration in the treaty which states “the Government of the United States of America will not object to the Danish Government extending their political and economic interests to the whole of Greenland.” this became known as the Lansing Declaration.

The Kaufmann Treaty (1940–1945)

The Kaufmann Treaty (often referred to as the Greenland Treaty or the Agreement Relating to the Defense of Greenland) was a pivotal 1941 agreement between the United States and Denmark that permitted the US to establish military bases in Greenland during World War II. Signed on April 9, 1941, exactly one year after Nazi Germany occupied Denmark, the treaty was signed by Danish Ambassador to the US Henrik Kauffmann, without the authorization of the occupied Danish government in Copenhagen. (6)

The US needed to protect Greenland from German encroachment and secure vital cryolite mines (used for aluminum production). The US guaranteed the defense of Greenland as part of the Western Hemisphere under the Monroe Doctrine. However, the treaty included a controversial clause, (Article X) which stated the agreement would remain in force until both parties agreed that the danger to peace and security had passed, essentially giving the US a potential veto over when to leave! Despite initial opposition, the treaty was ratified by the Danish Parliament after the war in 1945. It laid the foundation for the US presence in Greenland, including the establishment of Thule Air Base. Today it's the home to ballistic missile and space warning sensors and the world's northernmost deep water port. In 1946 US President Harry Truman offered Denmark $100 million in gold for the purchase of Greenland. Denmark rejected the offer, choosing instead to modernize the island's colonial status and eventual integration. Later During the Eisenhower administration the Joint Chiefs of Staff believed it to be axiomatic that sovereignty provides the firmest basis of assuring that a territory and its resources will be available for military use when needed. United States sovereignty over Greenland would remove any doubt as to the unconditional availability of bases(7)

The 1951 Defense Agreement between the US and Denmark established the current framework for US military presence, leading to the construction of Pituffik Space Base (formerly Thule Air Base). The Defense of Greenland Agreement(8) remains the legal basis for American military presence in Greenland. It was further amended in 2004 to include the Greenlandic home-rule government, allowing local input on US military operations.

The Second World War

The Second World War fundamentally changed Greenland’s geopolitical situation. Cut off from an occupied Danish government, the Greenlanders experienced a small degree of self-governance, as well as their first encounter with the United States. The island of just under 20,000 inhabitants quickly filled with thousands of American troops. With them came increased infrastructure, new cultural influences, and the opportunity for new trade relationships.

A New Defense Treaty and Growing Autonomy (1946–2009)

Following World War II, Greenland’s previous colonial status quo was untenable. With the United States firmly planted in the nation and the Cold War escalating, Denmark attempted to decolonize Greenland and integrate the islanders. This resulted in a population explosion along with a growing economy, but the decolonization of Greenland also resulted in serious human rights abuses and the persecution of Greenlandic language and culture which pushed Greenland to fight for increasing self-governance. Meanwhile both China, Russia, and the US have all begun bolstering their Arctic strategy as warming temperatures melt the polar ice, opening up the region to become an increasingly important realm for trade and security.

The primary motivation of the US in seeking of Greenland acquisition has consistently been Arctic defense from the existing perception of anti US competition, particularly due to Greenland’s location in the GIUK gap (Greenland, Iceland, UK).(9) American interest has also been driven by potential access to rare earth minerals and resources, especially under the Trump administration. Denmark has consistently rejected all direct offers to buy the island, stating it is "not for sale”. Yet what are the possible futures of the Kalaallit people?

The most likely compromise is a renegotiation of defense agreements. The US and Denmark may revise the 1951 bilateral agreement to allow for an expanded US military presence, such as new, permanent bases for surveillance or specialized submarine operations which is pretty much the situation that existed prior to the US saber rattling, making one wonder was this ‘crisis’ ever real or necessary. Greenland would receive increased investment, but Denmark retains sovereignty. The US strengthens its Arctic foothold without violating NATO integrity.

It is possible increased economic pressure coupled with a ‘Framework Deal’ where the US employs economic pressure (tariffs) on Denmark to force a "Compact of Free Association" (COFA), similar to existing US agreements with Pacific Island nations. The Compact of Free Association (COFA) states are three sovereign Pacific Island nations— Micronesia (FSM), the Marshall Islands (RMI), and the Republic of Palau—that maintain a special partnership with the United States. These nations provide the US with exclusive military defense access in the region in exchange for financial assistance, economic programs, and the right for their citizens to live and work in the US. Greenland gains significant financial investment to reduce its reliance on Danish subsidies but becomes de facto dependent on the US for defense and economy.

Either of these scenarios may produce accelerated Greenlandic Independence to avoid being caught between US demands and Danish control, Greenland accelerates its path to independence, potentially creating a new nation that immediately signs a security pact with the US and Canada. However there is a possibility of China stepping into the vacuum this produces. The implications of these alternatives silences the "purchase" rhetoric but places a newly independent, vulnerable Greenland directly under the US security umbrella. This is the preferred outcome in Washington. Yet to ignore implications would be naive at best and disingenuous at worst. This whole trumped up emergency has already created a diplomatic crisis and produced strain and high tension within the NATO Alliance. A "bitter pill" scenario may arise in where European allies may choose appeasement to the US to avoid a trade war, or, conversely, a major diplomatic break. Unfortunately, the past is usually the prologue, the one outcome most assuredly will be the indigenous peoples who have the most to lose will have the least to say.

Historian John F. McKeon lives on St. Croix USVI and in Southampton NY. He holds degrees from Trinity College Dublin, (MPhil with Distinction). and St. Joseph's University New York (Summa Cum Laude) B.A. East Asian History with a Philosophy Capstone Minor in Labor, Class and Ethics. John also has certificate from the Oxford University Epigeum Research Integrity Center. He is a current member of the Society of Virgin Island Historians.

Foot Notes

Erik the Red was the founder of the first European settlement on Greenland (c. 985) and the father of Leif Erikson, one of the first Europeans to reach North America.
Erik the Red was exiled from Iceland around 982 AD for three years due to his involvement in multiple killings resulting from violent disputes with neighbors, it seems he was convicted of manslaughter after fighting over broken trust, specifically after his thralls (slaves) caused a landslide and in turn, Erik killing the men who killed his slaves.
The Stockholm Bloodbath of 1520 was a mass execution of nearly 100 Swedish nobles, clergy, and citizens by the Danish King Christian II in Stockholm's main square, Stortorget. The event was a politically motivated purge disguised as a trial for heresy, intended to crush the Swedish independence movement.
"Seward's Folly" was a derisive term used by critics to mock the United States' purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million. The deal, championed by Secretary of State William H. Seward, was initially seen as a foolish waste of money on a frozen, useless wilderness. Ironically similar to the argument currently presented against a Greenland Purchase.
Named after American explorer Robert E. Peary, who first explored the region during his 1891–92 expedition. The "Peary Channel" Myth: Peary originally believed the land was an island separated from mainland Greenland by a channel. This was later proven false by Knud Rasmussen’s First Thule Expedition in 1912, confirming Peary Land is a peninsula and part of the whole.
The ‘occupied Danish government’ in Copenhagen, acting under duress from Germany, declared the treaty void and charged Kauffmann with high treason. Kauffmann ignored this, arguing he was acting in the best interests of the "free and independent" Denmark.
https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/declassified/fy-2011/1955-01-21.pdf
Defense of Greenland Agreement 1951 https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/den001.asp
The GIUK gap is an area of the North Atlantic Ocean that acts as a naval chokepoint between Greenland, Iceland, and the UK. It is a vital passage connecting northern European waters to the North Atlantic. It has historically been used by Russian (and formerly Soviet) ships and submarines to access the Atlantic from Arctic bases like Murmansk.