From Plantations to Projects: The History of Housing and Crime on St.Croix
- 2 days ago
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John F. McKeon
The relationship between housing and crime is a multi-layered intersection of socioeconomic stability, urban design, and public policy that may significantly shape the safety of modern communities. Historical theories often link low-income housing to increased delinquency. But is that an accurate assessment? Does that explain the rise and nature of crime on St. Croix? A closer look into the history of housing and crime on the Island may help.
The history of housing on St. Croix is defined by its transition from early colonial structures, to the elaborate masonry "Great Houses" of the sugar era, and finally to modern public housing and suburban developments.These modern public housing projects resulted in disparate outcomes. The results are mixed and questions arise such as: Did nearly a century of federal programs work? What is the nexus point of crime and housing on the island? Is it a result of correlation, causation or coincidence? Were these attempts at progress inherently racist? This article will provide the historical background and help the reader come to their own conclusions. There were three major eras of t housing development and the type of crime that prevailed in each of them.
The Plantation Era (18th–19th Century)
The early Europeans relied on local natural resources as building materials. European stone proved problematic in Caribbean heat and humidity. The alternative was ‘wattle and daub’ (1) structures that were breathable and could withstand hurricanes. When damaged, they were easily repaired with local materials. Early roofs were typically made of sugarcane leaves or palm branches, which could last 50 to 80 years if spared from fire. The sugar industry dictated housing patterns, creating a stark divide between the enslaved population and the wealthy planters. ‘Villages’ were erected and enslaved laborers lived in wattle and daub huts with bare earth floors. These were eventually replaced by masonry row houses built of stone and mortar. These units often featured two adjoining rooms and were remarkably hurricane-resistant.
The centerpiece of the plantation was the Great House, which showcased the planter's luxury. Often built by enslaved laborers, they were works of art situated on commanding ground to overlook the fields. Examples like Estate Whim and Estate Sion Farm still stand today. St. Croix's two main towns were preplanned with grid systems and governed by early building codes. Christiansted is noted for its 18th-century Danish-style solid stone buildings. A 1747 building code required structures to be built of masonry or wood with shingled (later tile) roofs.(2) The codes functioned as an early form of zoning, separating types of construction. A specific directive mandated ‘Free Negroes’ build their homes in a specific, designated area known as "Neger Gotted" (Free Gut). They were segregated but still within access.
Frederiksted was built later, on the leeward side of St. Croix for its naturally deep port, it also follows a grid plan and features historic stone buildings. Because enslaved Africans constructed many of these European style buildings, they are recognized as the world's few "African-Danish" towns, reflecting a unique architectural hybrid. The next notable phase in construction took place in the 1930s after the US purchase of the Virgin Islands from Denmark
FDR and The New Deal
A housing survey conducted on St. Croix in October 1933 revealed severe housing deficiencies in the aftermath of the transition from Danish rule and the economic depression of the era. The survey highlighted the urgent need for improved living conditions.(3). The major findings of the 1933 survey identified 2,623 one-room houses on St. Croix. Each of the one room structures housed between 1 and 12 persons. The homes generally lacked proper sanitation, having no back door for ventilation and requiring cooking, washing and living to occur in a limited space at the front of the house. Approximately half of these houses were described as artifacts of the slavery era, which ended in 1848.
Housing on St. Croix was characterized by extreme overcrowding and dilapidated conditions. This was sparked by the economic devastation of the Great Depression and the overall collapse of the sugar industry. The 20th century brought significant shifts in housing management and community structure beginning with Homesteading Programs.(4). Residents faced severe poverty, often living in bare-bones conditions without modern amenities. Families lived near creeks for water access, using them for washing and daily needs. Much of the land was owned by a small group of individuals, leaving Black farmers with excessive rents and no legal path to land ownership. To combat these conditions, the US Government initiated several programs through the ‘Living New Deal’ (5)
Small plots with modest but modern houses were built at sites like Estates Whim and Bethlehem to help families become self-sustaining. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) built sturdy, hurricane-resistant facilities to improve local infrastructure. These programs are not without political controversy on St. Croix, to some they were reminiscent of the historic, failed attempts by the Danes to redistribute land after the 1878 "Fireburn" insurrection, when the Danish government's attempt to distribute land to former slaves failed due to a lack of support from the planters and the government, leaving 90% of the land in the hands of a few, creating the erosion of the local farming culture and the ‘dispossession’ of native Crucians.
Funded by emergency relief grants, this program broke up large estates to combat severe housing and economic depression, establishing 6-acre plots for over 230 farmers by 1934. The initiative aimed to shift the economy away from collapsed industrial sugar production towards small scale agriculture and private land ownership.
The US government purchased the 1,450-acre Estate Whim and subdivided it into plots with concrete houses that provided 3-rooms with a gallery and cistern, offering a significant improvement over the one-room former slave quarter housing that existed. While not successful as an agricultural endeavor, it initially established a trend of private, small-acreage ownership on the island. It also sustained a sense of community. The Virgin Islands Housing Authority (VIHA) was formed in 1941 under the US Housing Act of 1937, to manage public housing. Early project communities like the Marley Homes in Frederiksted initially isolated residents by packing over people into high-density units far from town amenities. While local narratives sometimes emphasize a lack of legal segregation compared to the continental US, the structural design of these programs often mirrored exclusionary practices found across the US when federal housing policy explicitly endorsed segregation.(6)
The implicitly racist "separate but equal" doctrine was a legal principle established by the US Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), holding that racial segregation did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause as it provided that separate facilities for Black and white people were equal. In that era this was actually considered ‘progressive’. The outcome of this ruling legalized widespread Jim Crow (7) segregation across the US for nearly 60 years.
The New Deal was far from perfect and this writer is well aware of the criticisms that have been made of programs that failed to oppose or went along with the existing social order in the United States of that era. The New Dealers were, in every case, faced with a daunting task of overcoming long-established patterns of discrimination and oppression. In less than a decade, they could only do so much, nevertheless, the New Deal did a great deal of good in overcoming the mistreatment of neglected, excluded and marginalized people in American life. This involved not only people of color, but women, elders, the disabled and refugees. It is important to acknowledge the effort to oppose discrimination and the many accomplishments of their progressive policies
What The New Deal tried to do for Americans.
To begin with, most New Deal leaders made serious efforts to defy segregation. Moreover, they were pretty much the first federal officials to do so since Lincoln and Reconstruction. As a result, many New Deal programs like the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), Works Progress Administration (WPA) and public housing under the Public Works Administration and the US Federal Housing Administration were not segregated at the beginning. The WPA built thousands of integrated recreation facilities. The CCC and WPA employed over a million African Americans and other people of color, who were paid the same regardless of race. The New Dealers were well aware of the plight of Black Americans and targeted them with programs for farm loans, housing, schooling and more.
The New Deal tried to build housing in quantity for the first time in US history and provided tens of thousands of new homes for people of color. FDR read the tenor of the times and was rightly concerned about the plight of common people. He was neither racist nor particularly anti-racist (8).
LBJ and ‘The Great Society’ and Public Housing
Lyndon B. Johnson's ‘Great Society’ was a sweeping set of domestic programs and legislation passed between 1964 and 1968 with the primary goals of ending poverty, reducing racial injustice, and expanding social welfare. It established HUD as a cabinet-level department, introduced rent subsidies for low-income families, allowing them to live in privately owned housing, and provided grants for homeowners to rehabilitate their properties. The Act prohibited discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, or national origin. The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968 set an ambitious goal to build or rehabilitate 26 million housing units over 10 years, with 6 million specifically for low and moderate-income families. It also pioneered public private partnerships by encouraging private developers to build affordable housing.
Federal housing projects often "packed" residents into high-density units, isolating low income, predominantly Black communities from the broader population much like in mainland American cities. Urban Renewal initiatives in the USVI involved demolishing neighborhoods labeled as "slums". This process frequently displaced Black and Brown residents from integrated or traditional areas, concentrating them into public housing projects that lacked the same economic opportunities. These renewal plans were not specifically created for the Virgin Islands but were actually a template already in action in the continental US.
Where did these housing schemes originate? For a moment we need to return to the progressive New Deal era. This writer believes the origins lie not in Washington DC but decades earlier in New York City, under the guidance of Robert Moses. We need to take a few steps into the past to explain.
Robert Moses Master Builder
Moses was a dominant, unelected public official who shaped the physical, social, and housing landscape of the New York metropolitan region for over four decades roughly 1920s–1960s. He was famously known as the "Master Builder”. He championed a modernist approach to urban renewal, replacing what he deemed "slums" with massive, high rise public housing towers. His methods had a massive, direct, and influential role in the planning and construction of public housing in New York City. These techniques heavily informed the broader urban renewal and housing strategies adopted later by the federal government, and agencies like HUD. Moses used federal funding for massive, high-rise public housing projects and "slum clearance”. These projects often displaced hundreds of thousands of low income residents. The sites were selected to enforce racial segregation, ensuring that some projects remained in White, ethnic neighborhoods, while others concentrated poor, minority residents in specific areas.
Admittedly HUD was officially created later (1965) and the philosophies and methods that Moses perfected were consolidated into federal housing policy from the 1940s through the 1960s. Federal agencies like HUD and the FHA applied these policies throughout the US and into the territories. They made it difficult for Black households to access homeownership, while private developers continued to price them out of the market. There is no historical evidence that Robert Moses had any direct involvement in planning HUD's housing projects on St. Croix. His personal direct influence did not extend to the US Virgin Islands. Yet it would be disingenuous not to recognize his long term impact on federal housing policies. Moses’ influence was present because midcentury bureaucrats adopted his modernist urban renewal philosophies, as did the Federal Government.
Legislative History (1960s)
The legal foundation for the current housing landscape was established during the LBJ era through both federal and local actions. The organization's history evolved through the following stages; In 1941 the municipal councils of St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix combined their separate housing authorities into a single agency known as the Virgin Islands Housing and Redevelopment Authority (VIHRA). In 1962 the Virgin Islands Legislature (Act No. 903) renamed the agency the Virgin Islands Housing Authority (VIHA). In 1981 a separate entity, the Virgin Islands Housing Finance Authority (VIHFA), was created to address low-to-moderate-income housing shortages through financing and mortgage programs.
Act No. 891 (1962): the Virgin Islands Legislature officially renamed the "Virgin Islands Housing and Redevelopment Authority" to the Virgin Islands Housing Authority (VIHA).
Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965: This federal law created HUD and provided the vast majority of the funding used to build high-density housing projects on St. Croix, such as LBJ Gardens, JFK, and the original Louis E. Brown community.
Local Governance: In 1966, the VI Legislature expanded from 11 to 15 seats to better manage the rapid growth and industrialization that necessitated these new housing developments.
In 1962 with industrialization and the arrival of Harvey Aluminum (later Alcoa) and the Hess Oil Refinery, thousands of workers migrated to St. Croix. Working with the USVI government, Harvey Aluminum developed a plant for alumina production, extracting alumina from bauxite. The company created Port St. Croix by blasting a large channel through the coastline, creating a mile-long harbor that is still considered one of the Caribbean’s best hurricane shelters. Its arrival, alongside the Hess Oil Refinery, was part of an Industrial Revolution modeled after Puerto Rico’s “Operation Bootstrap".
The existing housing stock was insufficient, leading to the creation of "shantytowns" and a push for government-regulated alternatives. During the LBJ years and the decade immediately following, the Virgin Islands Housing Authority (VIHA) aggressively built high-density housing communities. Many of these communities were built in the 1970s and have recently undergone or are scheduled for major redevelopment and modernization.The VIHA has about 3,014 public housing units located throughout St. Croix, St. Thomas and St. John.
Public Housing Communities on St. Croix:
The Shift in Design
Previously most housing on St. Croix was characterized by traditional Caribbean architecture: wood frames, stone foundations, and wide porches. LBJ Gardens * Christiansted Named directly after the President, it was a flagship project aimed at providing modern, affordable family homes near the town center. Ralph de Chabert Christiansted One of the largest early housing projects (demolished in 2003) designed to relocate families from "slum" areas in town to structured apartments. John F. Kennedy (JFK) Christiansted Built during the same era to honor the former President; it represented the shift toward high-density, multi-story government housing. Marley Homes Frederiksted Part of the effort to modernize housing on the West End of the island. The LBJ-era housing introduced the Concrete "Brutalist" Style that had Emerged in the 1950s (post-WWII) as a functional, low-cost solution for public housing and institutional buildings. Buildings were constructed using heavy concrete and cinderblocks to withstand hurricanes and provide fire resistance.
While these projects provided running water and electricity—luxuries for many at the time—they were often criticized for lacking the social "yards" and communal spaces found in traditional Virgin Islands villages. They were seeking density over community. While the 1960s government housing boom was a humanitarian effort to provide safe shelter, it also inadvertently created some of the social challenges seen today. By concentrating low-income families in specific "projects," the government inadvertently created pockets of poverty that were isolated from the broader economy. Many of the buildings constructed in the 1960s were not designed for the extreme salt-air environment of the Caribbean, leading to the significant decay and the current demolition redevelopment debates we see in areas like LBJ Gardens today.(9) While comprehensive public data specifically for every year since the New Deal housing programs in the mid 1930s is not readily aggregated, trends indicate that violent, gun-related crime has been a persistent, high-level issue, especially in the last few decades. The upward more violent trend began in the early 1970s, and a large cause was rapid socioeconomic changes, political tension, and a shift in the island's demographics. Since the decline of the plantation system, crime on St.Croix has transitioned from systemic state violence and labor-related uprisings to a modern landscape characterized by high rates of gun related homicide, gang activity, and drug trafficking.
Social Vulnerability of USVI Population:
The Plantation Era (1733–1848)
In the Danish West Indies "crime" was defined by the preservation of the slave-based sugar economy. The Danish West India-Guinea Company enforced the Slave Code of 1733,(11) which treated enslaved people as chattel and criminalized almost every aspect of their personal lives. Crimes included running away, theft of food, or assembling without a white person present. Discipline was brutal and performed publicly to deter others, ranging from whippings to execution for attempted rebellion. By the late 1700s, over 10% of the enslaved population were considered "criminals" for escaping into settlements in the Northwest hills of St. Croix.
Post-Emancipation & Labor Riots (1848–1917)
After emancipation in 1848, the definition of crime shifted toward enforcing unfair labor contracts. Freed people were forced into annual labor contracts that essentially mandated involuntary servitude. Breaking these contracts was a criminal offense. Frustration over these laws led to the 1878 Labor Riot, or Fireburn, where much of Frederiksted was burned. The participants were treated as insurrectionists; many were executed or imprisoned. Crime was largely defined by resistance to the persistent colonial plantation mindset and restrictive labor laws. Following the uprising, the Danish government executed several leaders and declared martial law to maintain order. The most significant “crime” was a labor riot against exploitative work contracts and low wages that resulted in the burning of dozens of plantations. Systemic Oppression led to the creation of laws specifically designed to protect the interests of the plantocracy and control the formerly enslaved population, often criminalizing labor mobility.
The American Era (1917–Present)
The United States purchased the islands in 1917, and the local Gendarmerie was replaced by American police and eventually the Virgin Islands Police Department. The 1970s Turning Point was when St. Croix transitioned from agriculture to industrialization tourism.Crime patterns shifted toward armed robbery and violent crime. This event fundamentally changed St. Croix's reputation, leading to a long-term decline in tourism and increased racial tensions.
The modern crime profile began to emerge during a period of rapid urbanization and the growth of the tourist industry in the 1960s and 70s. Housing developments led to the urbanization of St. Croix’s population, which tripled in 10 years, leading to increased social friction and property crime. Modernization may have a strong correlation between increased tourism and surges in property crimes like robbery.
In August 1973, Governor Melvin H. Evans (12) requested federal assistance, including US Marshals, to restore order on St. Croix following a series of violent murders that caused panic among residents and tourists, of the 16 murders on St. Croix, all but one of the victims were White. This wave of violence included the notable September 1972 Fountain Valley massacre where eight people, seven of whom were white, were killed. This led to fears of racial tension, though Governor Evans initially cautioned against characterizing the murders as purely racially motivated. Governor Evans requested federal help, noting that the local police force of 100 officers for 40,000 residents was "inadequate". He sought help from US Attorney General Elliot Richardson. Approximately 40 federal marshals were deployed to work alongside local police, assisting with street patrols. Agents from the FBI were also deployed to patrol the island. The marshals were brought in to help maintain order. By October 1973, Governor Evans expressed regret over calling in the marshals, stating that the press had overplayed the racial, white-versus-black, angle of the killings.
Contemporary Crime Landscape (1990s–2026)
In the last 30 years, the USVI has consistently faced one of the highest homicide rates globally, often exceeding 50 per 100,000 residents. Violent crime is predominantly driven by firearms, gang disputes, and retaliation. The surge in violent crime in the mid 2010s was largely attributed to an influx of guns and the illegal drug trade. Most homicides on St. Croix involve young men as both victims and perpetrators. In 2020, 63% of homicide victims were between the ages of 18 through 29 years old. As of January 19, 2026, St. Croix itself has already recorded 3 homicides. In 2025, the island recorded 11 homicides by mid-year, maintaining a consistently high trend despite a slight dip in late 2024.
Crime statistics for the US Virgin Islands have shown significant volatility, with the territory experiencing some of the highest homicide rates in the world.
USVI Estimated Homicide Rate by Decade
*Projected based on current annual data available for 2020-2025.
While the 1960s and 1970s were characterized by high violence, this was part of a broader, era of rapid industrialization and economic inequality. The establishment of industrial entities like the Hess Oil refinery and a growing tourism industry brought significant change. This rapid development created economic disparities, as many native Crucians felt left behind, often shunning service-level jobs (waiters, housekeepers) created by tourism, which were then filled by "alien" labor from other Caribbean Islands.
The influx of mainland Americans and Caribbean workers led to a feeling among some local residents that their culture and economic future were being threatened. The 1972 Fountain Valley massacre was largely motivated by these factors, with one of the killers named Ishmael LaBeet, expressing anger at foreigners "taking our money". Some felt this was a political statement or an attempt to drive Whites off the island. While not exclusively tied to the 1960s, a long history of violent, organized drug gangs grew from this period of disruption, controlling territory through violence often operating from within the prison system.
While the Johnson administration's "Great Society" initiatives were designed to reduce poverty, they sometimes produced complex impacts. The Immigration Act of 1965 removed the “nation of origin quotas," which altered demographics in the USVI. Some perspectives rightfully argue the creation of "projects," subpar schools, and limited opportunities for youth, created a sense of hopelessness that later fueled gang activity, often labeled as a result of "systematic injustice" and poor planning. So what were the results of these federal programs from the 1930s to present day.
To be sure, the New Deal under FDR and the later LBJ’s Great Society which came later was a mirror image of the accepted racial philosophy of the times. An overall assessment is complicated. Overall, both should be remembered as an effort in capitalism to support working people, millions of whom were not White. Yet it must be recognized that residents today still point to a terrible imbalance in land ownership and access to housing, where wealthier, often White, residents and or developers dominate real estate while Black residents face higher levels of social vulnerability and poverty. These and other issues need to include greater local participation in the tourist economy and in the control of a business sector that is controlled by other minority communities (whites, East Indians, and Arabs). Undoubtedly remedies are required to confront the persistence of an underclass of Black and Hispanic youth with little or no chance for social mobility and even less hope for even the possibility of a future.
Historian John F. McKeon lives on St. Croix USVI and in Southampton NY. He holds degrees from Trinity College Dublin, (MPhil with Distinction). and St. Joseph's University New York (Summa Cum Laude) B.A. East Asian History with a Philosophy Capstone Minor in Labor, Class and Ethics. John also has certificate from the Oxford University Epigeum Research Integrity Center. He is a current member of the Society of Virgin Island Historians.
Sources:
The Public Health Implications of Social Vulnerability in the U.S. Virgin Islands Greg Guannel University of the Virgin Islands, Hilary Lohmann U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Joe Dwyer University of the Virgin Islands 2022
The Library of Congress: https://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/fsa.8c35476/ Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA http: hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
CORRELATES OF RACE, ETHNICITY AND NATIONAL ORIGIN IN THE UNITED STATES VIRGIN ISLANDS Klaus de Albuquerque and Jerome L. McElroy Social and Economic Studies , SEPTEMBER 1999, Vol. 48, No. 3 (SEPTEMBER 1999), pp. 1-42 Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies, University of the West Indies
Foot Notes
Wattle and daub is a traditional building technique used for over 6,000 years to create walls and fences by combining a woven lattice of wood with a sticky plaster material. It consists of two primary components. Wattle is a woven "basket-like" framework of vertical stakes and horizontal flexible branches (withies), typically made of hazel, willow, or acacia. Daub is a composite plaster applied over the wattle. It usually contains a binder (clay, lime, or chalk), an aggregate (earth, sand, or crushed stone), manure and reinforcement (straw, hay, or animal hair)
It required most new structures to be built from masonry (stone, brick, or coral) to provide durability and fire resistance. While wood was permitted in some areas, it often had to be built on stone foundations.
The 1933 Annual Report of the Governor of the Virgin Islands
https://livingnewdeal.org/sites/whim-estate-homestead-st-croix-2221
The doctrine was effectively dismantled by the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal"
Jim Crow refers to the system of state and local laws, policies, and customs in the United States—primarily in the South—that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchised Black Americans from the late 19th century until the mid-1960s. Based on "separate but equal" principles, these laws legalized systemic inequality, barring Black people from white schools, parks, restaurants, and public transportation.
Two of his worst decisions were the failure to back a federal anti-lynching law in the mid 1930s and the internment order for Japanese Americans in 1942. The former caved to Southern opinion to hold together the Democratic coalition in Congress and the latter to anti-Japanese sentiment and war hysteria on the West Coast. Roosevelt should be judged harshly on both counts, but this neither negates all his other contributions nor does it make the New Deal part of the seamless web of White Supremacy.
Today, the LBJ Gardens neighborhood is at a critical turning point as residents weigh government offers that could lead to the community's demolition.
The Public Health Implications of Social Vulnerability in the U.S. Virgin Islands Greg Guannel University of the Virgin Islands, Hilary Lohmann U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Joe Dwyer University of the Virgin Islands 2022
The Slave Code of 1733, also known as the Gardelin Slave Code, was a set of brutal regulations issued on September 5, 1733, by Governor Philip Gardelin of the Danish West Indies (now the US Virgin Islands). It was designed to suppress the growing number of escapes (marronage) and maintain total control over the enslaved population on St. John.
Dr. Melvin Herbert Evans (August 7, 1917 – November 27, 1984) was a pioneering physician and politician who became the first popularly elected governor of the US Virgin Islands. After serving as the last presidentially appointed governor (1969–1971), Evans won the territory's first-ever gubernatorial election, serving from 1971 to 1975. Evans was the first Black person elected governor in United States history. He served as the Virgin Islands' at-large delegate to the US House of Representatives from 1979 to 1981.
