Gunboat Diplomacy: Teddy Roosevelt and The Great White Fleet

John F. McKeon 

Getty Images 

This past week I drove into Frederiksted to pay a call on the newly arrived USS Iwo Jima (1) Frederiksted is on the west end of St. Croix in the US Virgin Islands. It is a port with a long pier that welcomes cruise ships. The area is known for sunsets, calm blue waters, and white sand beaches.

A noticeably large US maritime presence has been gathering in the Caribbean Sea since this past July. The USS Gerald R. Ford Carrier Strike Group arrived on November 16, 2025, The Ford, the Navy's newest super-carrier, brings F-35C stealth fighters, advanced radars, and a full air wing. 

The buildup includes the afore mentioned USS Iwo Jima Amphibious Ready Group with the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit. This adds more than 2,200 Marines, MV-22 Ospreys, CH-53E helicopters, and landing craft. In total, nearly a dozen warships and around 12,000 sailors and Marines now operate in the region. It is not often these days that we Virgin islanders are visited by such a contingent of our navy. However, the US Navy has a long history of using the Virgin Islands as ports of call, both for strategic naval operations and for sailor rest and recreation. This relationship dates back to the islands' purchase in 1917, when the Navy initially administered the territory, establishing naval bases and military airfields. Today, regular visits from naval ships continue to be a source of economic activity and a point of connection between the Navy and the islands.  

The current naval buildup and following drone strikes are not the standard operating procedure we islanders are accustomed with. They are intended to pressure members of the Venezuelan government into resigning or arranging a handover of power by demonstrating the US military's capability to capture or kill them through targeted strikes. Many specialists in the laws of war and executive power stated that President Trump had "used the military in a way that had no clear legal precedent or basis”.(2) The Trump administration has given various and frequent disparate reasons for this display of force. A display such as not witnessed in our region since the Cuban Missile Crisis.(3) There are many valid questions and dissenting opinions concerning its legality and even its efficacy, however this is not an editorial piece, it is a historical column and as such the author will leave the pros and cons to the pundits and opinion writers. This article is concerned with how our modern navy came to be. 

While viewing the USS Iwo Jima, a phrase from back in my undergrad days came to mind and my inner historian became curious with the return of “Gunboat Diplomacy” (4) to our islands and its application throughout history. We need to once again go back to the past to see how we arrived at this point, though it is no way a historical anomaly to be sure. 

 What is Gunboat Diplomacy?   

The US has used Gunboat Diplomacy since its modern definition originated in the Nineteenth Century. During the age of imperialism, western powers used their superior naval technology and the use of steam power to more efficiently establish and service existing or new colonies. To open up trade routes, and enforce their interests in regions like Asia, Africa, and Latin America and throughout the Caribbean and Atlantic World Even with the changes in international law and modern reforms, the underlying principles persist. 

Modern examples include "freedom of navigation operations" in the South China Sea and military exercises near flashpoints to signal resolve, deter perceived aggression, or protect economic interests. 

Gunboat diplomacy is a foreign policy strategy that involves the use or explicit threat of limited military force, particularly naval power, to coerce another state into agreement or extract concessions, without actually engaging in a full-scale war. 

The core idea is that the conspicuous display of military might, often by deploying warships off a weaker nation's coast, is enough to project power through intimidation of the target nation into complying with the demands of the stronger power. Power projection is an attempt by a state to deploy and sustain forces outside its territory. The ability of a state to project its power into an area may serve as an effective diplomatic lever, influencing the decision-making processes and acting as a potential deterrent on other states' behavior. 

Path of the White Fleet :Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site Creation Date 1909 Creator:Davis, Anna Chase 

In earlier times war and trade at sea in the wider world were often inseparable, with violence being a central part of the commercial strategies of state, private and mercantilistic actors alike. Though in the distant past it was also a common tactic for exploration. Gunboat diplomacy became distinctively European. In the nineteenth Century changes in international norms first restricted the practice of gunboat diplomacy to nations and not corporate entities as it became illegitimate to resolve trade and sovereign debt disputes through inter-state violence. Now we get to Teddy Roosevelt!  

The White Fleet 

In 1898 gunboat diplomacy was utilized by the United States during the Spanish American War, where naval power played a crucial role in securing new American interests in the Caribbean and into the Pacific Ocean. The development of the White fleet was ordered by President Roosevelt and consisted of 16 battleships, divided into four squadrons, along with six destroyers and six auxiliary vessels. Roosevelt ordered the ships hulls painted a bright white, (giving the fleet its memorable nickname). Roosevelt envisioned an excursion consisting of a 14-month circumnavigation of the globe. He intended this to happen between the years 1907 to 1909. Its intention was to demonstrate American naval power by asserting the nation's growing status as both a global force and a major player on the high seas. A secondary hope was to promote diplomatic goodwill through friendly port visits. The 14-month voyage started in Hampton Roads, Virginia, and covered over 43,000 miles, making stops in ports across six continents before returning on February 22, 1909. 

Show of force: 

Teddy Roosevelt’s primary goal was to project American naval strength and show the world that the US was now capable of operating a large, modern fleet across the globe. The fleet made numerous courtesy calls to other countries to foster goodwill and promote diplomatic relationships. But there was a deeper agenda also. The voyage was Roosevelt’s not so subtle veiled warning to Japan, aiming to ‘ease’ rising tensions between the two nations over US territorial interests, particularly in the Philippines. The expedition also served as an important training exercise for the nearly 15,000 sailors involved, familiarizing them with the logistical needs of a long-distance deployment. President Roosevelt also saw the tour as a way to impress the American public and solidify the image of the United States as a major world power. 

Logistical Challenges 

The Great White Fleet's world mission faced significant logistical, mechanical, and political obstacles. The primary challenges included securing adequate coal supplies, managing mechanical deficiencies or needed repairs to the ships, and overcoming initial domestic political opposition. 

The most significant obstacle was the supply of coal. Unlike Great Britain, and other maritime powers, the United States did not possess a global network of coaling stations. This forced the fleet to rely heavily on foreign sources and commercial colliers for refueling.( hardly conforming to the goal of representing itself as a self sustaining global naval power)! Existing US federal regulations of the era required all Navy supply contracts must go to American-flagged vessels. The lack of any adequate American merchant marine meant most of the 38 contracted coal ships were British-registered. This was politically awkward, as Britain was an ally of Japan at the time! The voyage also would expose a critical shortage of support infrastructure, including repair and docking facilities, especially on the US West Coast and in US territories like the Philippines and Hawaii. An extended stop in San Francisco required the re-opening and updating of a closed civilian shipyard (Hunter's Point) to accommodate the battleships for overhaul and refitting. 

In comparison, as a maritime super power, the Royal Navy played a central role in providing Britain the strength and ability to dominate world trade and project power globally to further its interests. A worldwide system of naval bases and coaling stations, a large logistical bureaucracy to oversee shipbuilding, the supply of coal, food, water, and sailors, and an industrial base for the manufacture and technological enhancement of the fleet were among the essential ingredients for this capability. During the First Opium War (1839–1842), it was this capacity that enabled a British expeditionary force of 15 barracks ships, 4 steam-powered gunboats and 25 smaller boats with 4,000 marines to successfully and impressively defend its interests 6,000 miles from the fleet's home port. 

Mechanical and Design Flaws 

Even more concerning was the ships themselves presented technical challenges. By the time the fleet sailed (1907-1909), the ships were already considered obsolete compared with the new, revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought. () Two of 5the oldest ships, the USS Maine and USS Alabama, suffered persistent mechanical troubles and had to be detached in San Francisco to complete a more direct circumnavigation. 

The cruise revealed several design flaws, including low turret heights and poor placement of armament that became useless in moderate to rough seas, as the guns were often too close to the water line. The ships were also generally deluged in all but the calmest weather, which led to future design changes like flared bows and increased freeboard (the distance from the waterline to the upper deck level) 

Political and Financial Opposition 

President Theodore Roosevelt faced political opposition to the mission. Congress threatened to withhold funding for the second half of the trip (the return journey). Roosevelt bypassed this by stating he had the funds to send the fleet to the Pacific and that Congress would be forced to fund their return, that is if Congress wanted them back home. Some naval professionals initially argued that such a long deployment was impractical for battle strategy and that training could be better accomplished in home waters, especially given the vulnerability of the Russian Baltic Fleet during the Russo Japanese War a few years earlier. (6)

Teddy got his way and the Great White Fleet was a success and it demonstrated America's growing naval power and transformed international perceptions of the US as a world power. The circumnavigation was a significant achievement and proved the US Navy could operate globally and boosted national prestige. Operationally, the journey experienced minimal technical issues, and it provided valuable lessons for future naval operations. The fleet's voyage showcased American industrial and naval strength on a global scale. Its arrival in ports around the world, particularly in Japan, where it was welcomed and feted by the Emperor. However the voyage also revealed innate weaknesses in some of the older ships, providing insights for future naval improvements. 

The fleet's visits were seen as diplomatic missions, improving relationships with Countries around the world and showcasing American power in a peaceful, yet assertive, manner. The fleet's journey generated enormous crowds and a positive image for the Navy at home and abroad. The fleet became a powerful symbol of "peace through strength," representing Roosevelt's "big stick" (7) diplomacy and confirming America's new standing as a major world power. 

As a result of the creation of Roosevelt’s Great White Fleet, the US Navy grew dramatically during World War I. Increasing in size to over 2,000 ships by the end of the war, up from 147 in 1914. This massive expansion included adding new destroyers and submarines, and increased naval personnel to nearly 600,000, while increasing the number of active ships from 342 in 1917 to 774 in 1919. Notable additions were the creation of 10 New dreadnoughts, 46 more Destroyers and over 50 Submarines were completed before the end of the war. it also helped to establish improved Itship to shore radio communications. The Great White Fleet was the catalyst for the creation and expansion of today’s modern navy and the leap made by the United States to the head of the table of Imperial powers. 

Historian John F. McKeon lives on St. Croix USVI and in Southampton NY. He holds degrees from Trinity College Dublin, (MPhil with Distinction). and St. Joseph's University New York (Summa Cum Laude) B.A. East Asian History with a Philosophy Capstone Minor in Labor, Class and Ethics. John also has certificate from the Oxford University Epigeum Research Integrity Center. He is a current member of the Society of Virgin Island Historians. 

Foot Notes

---

1. The USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7) landing helicopter dock is a Wasp-class amphibious assault ship of the United States Navy. The ship was named for the Battle of Iwo Jima of World War II. The ship was commissioned in 2001 and is in service.  

   
   

2. Savage, Charlie (4 September 2025). "Trump Claims the Power to Summarily Kill Suspected Drug Smugglers". The New York Times , Archived from the original on 4 September 2025. Retrieved 21,November 2025     
   

3. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a political and military confrontation in October 1962 between the US and the Soviet Union over the deployment of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba. The crisis brought the two superpowers to the brink of nuclear war, but it ended when the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for the US promising not to invade Cuba and secretly agreeing to remove US missiles from Turkey.   
   

4. The concept itself existed much earlier, with examples including the Opium Wars in China in the mid-1800s and Commodore Matthew Perry's expedition to Japan. In 1927, the term was used to describe the "big-power domination of China early in the century".The term gained further prominence with the Panay incident in 1937, when a Japanese bomber sank a US gunboat on the Yangtze River. the concept was solidified by James Cable, who published the book "Gunboat Diplomacy: Political Applications of Limited Naval Force" in 1972  
   

5. The Dreadnought was the first capital ship to be powered by steam turbines, making her the fastest battleship in the world at the time of her completion. Her launch helped spark a naval arms race as navies around the world, particularly the Imperial German Navy, rushed to match it in the build-up to the First World War. 
   

6. The Russo-Japanese War took place from 1904, to 1905. The Russian Baltic Fleet (which became the Second Pacific Squadron) suffered from numerous critical vulnerabilities, stemming primarily from a disastrously long voyage, poor leadership, inadequate training, obsolete equipment, and a significant morale crisis. 
   

7. The phrase is a variation of Theodore Roosevelt's famous quote, "Speak softly and carry a big stick," which advises that one should be diplomatic but have the strength to back up their words if necessary. The original quote suggests that diplomacy is the primary approach, but the underlying threat of force ensures that diplomatic efforts are taken seriously.