The Architecture of the Virgin Islands: Its All in the Details
- Mark Dworkin
- Jan 8
- 12 min read
John F. McKeon
The architecture of the Danish West Indies, (presently known as the U.S. Virgin Islands) is an adaptive style shaped by the region!s tropical climate and by its colonial history. Danish West Indian architecture was largely exported from the urban aesthetic of Copenhagen to the Caribbean islands of St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John. In historic towns like Christiansted and Charlotte Amalie, many European influences such as Rococo, Palladian, and Baroque, were reimagined through the use of local materials. These modifications became known as the "Copenhagen style”(1). To combat the intense heat and humidity, these structures integrated form and functionality through such details as deep verandahs or galleries, louvered wooden jalousie shutters, and massive rubble masonry walls for insulation against the heat and protection from fire. Yet, beyond the European aesthetics, the enduring integrity of these buildings also elucidates the important master craftsmanship of West African artisans, whose labor and traditional building techniques—such as intricate wrought ironwork and "welcoming arm" staircases(2)—are engraved into the islands' forts, sugar mills, and urban estates. The Neoclassical Influence is exhibited by the clean lines, measured facades, and yellow-ochre or crème yellow color schemes.
Adaptation to intense heat and probability of violent weather systems is represented through structural features like arcades or ‘galleries’ that provide shade and divide the cooler interior from the tropical sun, while high ceilings and louvered shutters ensure natural ventilation. Imported materials were used in many historic buildings like the Danish West India and Guinea Company Warehouse which display yellow bricks brought from Denmark as ship ballast. The result is a cultural fusion permitting the blend of European urban planning with West African craftsmanship, resulting in landmarks such as the "streets of stairs" (frigangs)(3) in Charlotte Amalie on St. Thomas and the picturesque sugar mills throughout St. Croix. However the question arises as to who and what produced this unique combination of beauty and function? For that we have to travel back in time to get our answer.
The French Influence:
St. Croix was purchased from France by the Danish in 1733, and the towns of Christiansted and Frederiksted were subsequently developed with a strong Danish architectural imprint. The French architectural influence present in the former Danish West Indies is more specific to town planning and some decorative elements, but the prevailing style in the historic towns is Danish neoclassical. However, the French influence is a subtle blending with Danish, Dutch, English, and African styles. Symmetrical town planning (like Christiansted's street grid pattern), and specific community styles such as Frenchtown in Charlotte Amalie, highlight the shared Caribbean colonial architectural patterns.However, St. Croix is more known for its estates (plantations) and other French/Danish influences. Simply put,French architectural input was part of the broader European colonial melting pot that existed in the Danish West Indies, conducive to the textured and kaleidoscopic architectural heritage witnessed today
The Key Areas of French Influence are visible in the initial planning of the towns. The grid-like street patterns as well as the structure of towns like Christiansted shows influence from French colonial urban design, emphasizing symmetry and order.
The colonial fusion of French architectural tradition merged with Danish, Dutch, and English styles and created a unique Caribbean-European architectural conversation that is evident in plantation houses and public buildings. French influences can be seen in decorative elements like decorative plasterwork, and wrought iron, Baroque neoclassical gestures common in colonial Caribbean architecture.(4) Yet it is primarily the Danish influence that prevails along with the notable contribution of African artisans and laborers. It is required that we delve into the genesis of these architectural styles to understand how and why our islands appear as they to do in the modern era of the US Virgin Islands
Virgin Islands Architectural History
The architecture of the United States Virgin Islands,(5) is mostly defined by styles found in the three towns of Charlotte Amalie, Christiansted, and Frederiksted, as well as the rural ‘estates’. The majority of current buildings in the historic towns date to the 17-19th centuries. Aesthetic influences include Danish, Dutch and German building methods and were compounded with the architectural traditions of English, French and Spanish settlers. This style emerged in the mid 19th century and was known for its yellow brick finishing and sober ornamentation. This became known as The Copenhagen style The existing buildings also display the learned craftsmanship of the African artisans and laborers, who constructed the buildings.(6)
Moravian missionaries of German origin along with the Danish colonial government created training programs for slave laborers in the areas of masonry construction and wood framing, resulting in artisanship performed locally. Sophisticated craftsmanship was taught then executed by the forced labor population imported by the plantation system during the 18-19th centuries.
What emerged was current traditional Caribbean building practices. Some examples would be thick rubble masonry walls; wooden jalousies, verandas and hinged jalousie shutters, mortise and tenon wall and roof framing and the proliferation of Danish styled arches as found along the extensively arcaded sidewalks and alleys of the historic districts on St. Thomas and St. Croix
Other discernible characteristics can be found in both the exterior and interior dwelling spaces. Large central rooms, and iron gateways leading to courtyards, as well as indoor/outdoor ‘gallery’ areas. Yellow-ochre or cream and white and intermittently the choice of red were the preferred colors (for reasons we shall see further on in this article.) Exterior ‘welcoming arms’ staircases, hipped roofs, and simple but decorative facias and trim boards became traditional.
The Use of Color:
In the modern day Caribbean, color choice is an intense organic language that interlaces the region's multi-cultural heritage with environmental necessity. The sun-drenched yellows, vibrant pinks and turquoise blues all serve a practical purpose as a natural heat refractor, breaking up the intense tropical sun to keep interior spaces cool. However there is another purpose, these flamboyant hues reflect the rich tapestry of African, European, and Indigenous influences. The colors also reflect values such as nature (green) faith (blue) and courage (red).
The vibrant yellow and dynamic red colors on Danish West Indies forts, like Fort Christiansværn (yellow) and Fort Frederik (red) on St. Croix, were much more than just decorative. The use of ship ballast brick and stone from Denmark signaled power, (similar to the way the Spanish forts were painted white with red trim to intimidate, showing off a daunting colonial presence. Assumedly specific colors were the possible decider by whichever brick color ship arrived at a particular fort site. Forts were built with bricks that arrived as ballast in ships from Denmark.
On St. Croix yellow bricks went to Christiansted (Fort Christiansværn), while red bricks were used for Frederiksted (Fort Frederik). The bright colors served to project dominance and power, making the forts highly prominent and conspicuous symbols of Danish authority contrasting with European styled Star Forts(7) In this case the contrasting bright colors (yellow vs. red) show a deliberate attempt by the Danes to make the forts imposing, much like the Spanish used white and red for intimidation. Apparently the color choice was a mix of practical material use and strategic colonial signaling, making these forts stand out in the Caribbean Sea.
The Masonry Mandate
Historically, masonry in the Virgin Islands focused on using locally available materials to create durable, climate-responsive structures. Obviously they used what they had access to. Common materials included locally sourced stone, coral, imported European bricks (often used as ship ballast), lime, sand, and sometimes molasses as an additive to the lime mortar. Walls were built as notably thick as two feet to provide natural cooling and structural resilience against hurricanes. The foundations were critical. Dismissing the use of traditional footers, masons often dug until they hit bedrock seeking a solid base. Early lime mortar was not very cohesive and was often stiffened with broken bricks and sea shells to leech moisture. The objective was to erect a solid stone wall and cover it with plaster. However the plaster often fell off over time to reveal the stonework underneath. Coral stone was discovered to be the best selected material, it could be carved, dressed, and shaped into moldings, quoins, and cornices. Yellow brick was often used to highlight distinctive architectural features. The Wall Type was customarily thick rubble masonry walls and evolved into a common traditional building practice.
Contemporary construction in the USVI is heavily influenced by the need for hurricane and earthquake resilience, while adhering to modern building codes. Reinforced concrete and cinder blocks are the standard for exterior walls. When retrofitting there is a focus on specialized techniques like repointing historic properties with traditional natural hydraulic lime mortar (instead of modern cement) to allow walls to "breathe" and prevent moisture damage (8)
Arches of Antiquity
Arches are used for arcaded sidewalks, galleries, and structural elements. These structures illustrate the vast wealth accrued from sugar & slave labor. Yet they also display the detailed local artisan craftsmanship. The archways in Christiansted and Frederiksted are best described by Ulla Lunn, an architect deeply involved in researching and preserving USVI heritage as ” smaller, with lower ceilings and the narrow walkways. Most of the also the masonry arches have to a great extent been built in the ‘basket-handle’ style, a very old form that was used in these towns until well into the 20th century.
The rounded arch became increasingly popular but it never totally displaced the basket handle arch.(9)
The West Indian Neoclassical style developed during the 17th-19th centuries. This style was characterized by thick walls, arcaded walkways (arches), galleries, hip roofs, and cisterns. Arches provided shelter from tropical sun and rain, created ventilated spaces, and formed fire-resistant structures, crucial for the plantation economy. Skilled local masons and carpenters, including Free Blacks, executed sophisticated designs, creating extremely durable as well as dignified buildings.
Some key examples of this method are The Seven Arches, a historic building in St. Thomas. Seven Arches was named for its prominent arches, showcasing this architectural style. The town of Christiansted on St. Croix is a prime historical example, with its arcaded sidewalks frequently referred to as "Danish arches" lining the streets, showcasing the islands' unique blend of Danish, Dutch, and local influences in durable masonry buildings built for sun, rain, and fire resistance. Early 19th-century fire codes mandated masonry construction, ensuring the survival of these arched, fireproof buildings in towns.
Buildings like the Danish West India & Guinea Company Warehouse feature these elements.(10) Even the smaller plantation Slavevagterhuse isolated guard houses located at field junctions used arches as they served as lookout posts against fire or rebellion, both unique to St. Croix.(11)
The Danish period (1672-1917) molded the islands' physical landscape, with ill gained wealth from sugar and enslaved labor funding grand construction projects. These arches serve as a tangible link to the Danish era, reflecting the islands' architectural heritage before the U.S. purchase in 1917.
Wrought Iron
From roughly 3500 BC in Egypt and Mesopotamia, iron was primarily used for tools and weapons. By the Middle Ages, wrought iron (meaning "worked" by hand) began producing intricate grille works and hinges. This provided protected windows and doors from assault and added aesthetic appeal. In the 17th and 18th centuries, French masters under Louis XIV refined the iron works into decorative balconies and stair railings featuring rich scrolls and floral motifs. The late 18th century introduced new smelting techniques, replacing the labor-intensive wrought iron with cheaper cast iron. Wrought iron's history in the Caribbean is deeply tied to the Industrial Revolution. Black metalworkers, likely enslaved in Jamaica, pioneered the innovative "Cort process" in the 1780s, allowing mass production of wrought iron from scrap, a technology later taken to Britain by Henry Cort. (12)
This key innovation of the industrial revolution was in fact pioneered in Jamaica by Black metallurgists, the majority of whom were enslaved. According to a new study by 13 UCL’s Dr Jenny Bulstrode (UCL Science & Technology Studies). The author’s research stated “The myth of Henry Cort needs to be revised. The so-called Cort process – one of the most important innovations in the making of the modern world – was developed by highly skilled Black metallurgists, most of whom were enslaved. Recognition of the debt the British industrial revolution owes to Black innovation is long overdue.” This allowed ironworking to serve colonial needs for plantation tools, shipbuilding, and iconic structures while blending African skills with colonial demands. Regions of West and West-Central Africa, from where many enslaved people came, were significant iron-working centers, bringing advanced metallurgical knowledge.
The casual observer may witness these historical elements when exploring downtown Christiansted and Frederiksted for a taste of the Danish colonial past. While Danish styles (like the yellow brick "Copenhagen style") are dominant in the historic towns (Charlotte Amalie, Christiansted, Frederiksted), French aesthetics contributed to the overall colonial fusion, especially in urban layouts and some decorative details, reflecting the diverse European powers that colonized the islands.
Architectural Integration
Christiansted's Danish colonial heritage can still be seen in its architecture and street names. Modern Virgin Islands architecture incorporates a variety of these forms. Arcaded sidewalks, courtyards, and specific color palettes, mingling historic aesthetics with climate resilient construction. The dominant West Indian Neoclassical style which thrived during the 1700s and 1800s is still present. This style is recognized for its dignified and solid appearance, featuring metrical arches and spacious interiors designed to manage the Caribbean climate. West Indian Architecture stipulated functional elements such as hipped roofs for rainwater collection, arcaded sidewalks for shade, and galleries or large windows to catch ocean breezes.
The cultural synthesis is apparent in the building of these towns—notably Christiansted, Frederiksted and Charlotte Amalie that conjoined the labor and artisanship of both Europeans and African alike. Owing a debt to many Free Blacks and enslaved people who adapted traditional European forms to local conditions and the material on hand. The use of yellow ballast bricks from Danish ships and local rubble masonry created a unique material palette that persists in the historic districts of St. Croix and St. Thomas.
An enduring legacy prevails to this day. These architectural roots serve as a permanent reminder of a history built on the trade of sugar, rum and the scourge of human bondage while preserving a visual landscape that is often described as more Danish than Caribbean in its urban structure. This legacy also serves as a tribute to the pride and resilience found in the artisanship of the West African enslaved labor that built the islands we see today.
Historian John F. McKeon lives on St. Croix USVI and in Southampton NY. He holds degrees from Trinity College Dublin, (MPhil with Distinction). and St. Joseph's University New York (Summa Cum Laude) B.A. East Asian History with a Philosophy Capstone Minor in Labor, Class and Ethics. John also has certificate from the Oxford University Epigeum Research Integrity Center. He is a current member of the Society of Virgin Island Historians.
Source Material
Source Book for Historic Buildings: A Resource Manual for the Virgin Islands Inventory of Historic Places. Virgin Island
When Architecture Tells the Story of the Virgin Islands of the United States" Ulla Lunn , pp 73 Gad Publishers 2018, 264pgs English Translation.
Black metal-workers in Jamaica pioneered key industrial revolution innovation https://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/2023/jul/black-metal-workers-jamaica-pioneered-key-industrialrevolution-innovation
Foot Notes
Copenhagen Style is usually defined by restrained ornamentation, stately facades, and iconic Danish arches that line extensively arcaded sidewalks. Use of color and wrought iron prevail as decorative as well as practical and functional alterations.
Welcoming arms staircases are a characteristic feature of Bermudian and Danish Colonial Architecture in the Caribbean, particularly on the island of St. Croix, so named because the curved flanking walls or railings span out at the entrance to resemble outstretched arms. While it's difficult to pinpoint the exact origin of a bifurcated exterior staircase, the "welcoming arms" style is strongly associated with the specific historical building traditions of these regions
Historic Danish-era brick step streets, called frigangs, on the U.S. Virgin Islands, 3 particularly famous in Charlotte Amalie on St. Thomas, and to a much lesser degree on the streets of Christiansted on St. Croix
A good example is ’Frenchtown’ (Charlotte Amalie) on St. Thomas. A neighborhood settled by French immigrants from St. Barthélemy that retains strong French-Caribbean traditions in its lifestyle and, by extension, its simpler building styles,
Formerly the Danish West Indies (1671-1917)
Primarily by the forced labor of African Akan, Ibo and Bantu lineage
Star forts were not designed as camouflage in the modern sense but were specifically engineered to resist artillery fire and eliminate blind spots. Their primary method of "concealment" involved minimizing vulnerability to cannon fire by incorporating low, thick, earthwork walls that were often hard to spot from a distance.
Chapman, William. Source Book for Historic Buildings: A Resource Manual for the Virgin Islands Inventory of Historic Places. Virgin Islands Planning Office, 1981. Compiled by Wanda Mills-Bochachica and Jerryn McCray
When Architecture Tells the Story of the Virgin Islands of the United States" Ulla Lunn , pp 73 Gad Publishers 2018, 264pgs English Translation.
The West India and Guinea Company Warehouse complex was finished in 1749, was built by enslaved Africans ‘owned’ by the Company. The entire complex was more than double the size it is today, and included stables, kitchens, slave quarters.
These small, typically oval-shaped stone buildings feature arched openings and were strategically positioned in sugarcane fields. Their purpose was to house guards who would watch for crop fires (a major concern for planters) and prevent enslaved people from escaping or stealing.
Web acquired 1/6/26 Black metal-workers in Jamaica pioneered key industrial revolution innovation https://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/2023/jul/black-metal-workers-jamaica-pioneeredkey-industrial-revolution-innovation
In the 1780s, Black metallurgists at a Jamaican foundry (owned by John Reeder near Morant Bay) developed a method to bundle and heat scrap iron with grooved rollers, transforming it into high-quality wrought iron. English businessman Henry Cort acquired this machinery and ‘patented’ the process, then moved it all to England meanwhile erasing the original Jamaican creators. Enslaved Africans' ingenuity fueled the Industrial Revolution, with their skills in iron metallurgy crucial to innovations later claimed by European industrialists, shaping both Caribbean and global ironwork.
